Outcasts united written by Warren St. John Essay

Outsiders joined composed by Warren St. John - Essay Example The book has been distributed in the United States of America by Spiegel and Grau in New York. Characters, Plot and Summary In his gem, John discusses Clarkston, a remote spot put in a safe spot for giving safe house to the displaced people rising up out of various corners of the world, from Iraq and Afghanistan to Liberia and Sudan, from Congo and Burundi to Bosnia and different countries. This midtown outside Atlanta, which was once white overwhelmed locale, is currently a mix of various societies, religions and hues. â€Å"The neighborhood secondary school in Clarkston, one all white, presently had understudies from in excess of fifty distinct nations. Societies were crashing in Clarkston, and the outcome was a crude and uncommonly charged analysis in getting along.† (John: 9) The UNHCR has picked families from the Middle East, Africa and Southeast Asia for offering resettlement in Clarkston. Practically these families have arrived here flat broke with the reinforcement of government’s help for only three months post which they were relied upon to acquire their own occupation. Leaving one’s own local land and beginning an actual existence without any preparation on a remote land, among differing societies, obstacles were nevertheless self-evident. However, is motivating this regular condition of the extraordinary exiles unites them to shape their very own network. The proverb â€Å"Small town †¦. ... The story at that point advances with the mentorship of this woman mentor who makes these young men face the flighty challengers for themselves just as their folks in this way clearing out all the distinctions among themselves. This Muslim woman in the Deep South had the will and mental fortitude to acquire the humble community and its new occupants a character. As one moves further, one can clearly become more acquainted with the immaculate endeavors of the Middle Eastern woman who investigates every possibility to get the young men far from the boulevards. The dauntless spirits of these evacuees who call themselves â€Å"Fugees† is genuinely honorable. Their affection for soccer went with their bondness after a tight battle of contrasts be it of shading (dark or white), religion (Muslim or Christianity) or language, uncovers the quality of activity and assurance. Indeed, even without extravagant spikes and weaved soccer packs which their rivals had, this vigorous group was h azardously intense for every single other group in the association. The creator pleasantly depicts the aching of the Fugees for the feeling of having a place in their new homes. The control that Mufleh brings into the lives of her players may appear to be fierce on occasion, yet is the bearer of positive outcomes too. Her announcement, â€Å"rules, my drills, my way† is something to gain from. (John: 267) Such is the prominence of the story that Outcasts United has been considered by Universal Studios. End Reading Outcasts United was acceptable. By depicting the genuine story of the displaced people and Mufleh, John has effortlessly featured another network which has the right to be treated as a critical piece of the current network. What I discovered generally intriguing in the whole book was the

The Greek Dark Ages Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Greek Dark Ages - Essay Example Society included gatherings of little settlements who made due on cultivating, which was viewed as a fundamental monetary asset. This article will examine crafted by three scholars who break down the way of life and social orders of the Greek Dark Ages. Hooper said that the intruders that came into Greece entered the state in exceptional numbers. These individuals had a type of Greek drop since they could talk comparative lingos. Notwithstanding, these intruders were far less better than their Greek partners. Likewise, these trespassers utilized iron weapons rather than the bronze ones utilized by the Greek pioneers: simply because iron was progressively ample in their locales (Desborough 1972). The Greek regions which had the most advancement started to show an adjustment in the nature of their work. Archeologists finding earthenware and different things from this age locate a colossal decrease in the creation of these products. Prior society appeared to be compelled to move in reverse as any advancement made in those periods was evacuated. This was supplanted by an uneducated and scattered gathering of individuals whose characteristics would keep on existing for quite a long time. This kept on deteriorating as society was not, at this point partitioned into explicit gatherings. It turned into an incredible chaos of misshaped gatherings. Greeks before the Dark Ages were separated into explicit classes: the rich lived in the royal residences having agreeable existences, they could do battle and would return back to their sumptuous lives and the poor would make products and artworks that would serve and aid the lives of the indulgent few. The royal residences, adornments, earthenware and tombs were completely evacuated and most were did not make anymore. All types of workmanship and ceramics were separated and their creation became non-existent in this New Greek period. At the point when the intrusions started, each individual from Greek society endured. Composing had vanished during the Greek Dark Ages (Andrews 1967). Archeologists feel that the best verification of this messed up society was the absence of any sort of composing during this period. It was simply after the general public moved to the ninth century that a letters in order started to show up. This too had constrained use. Nonetheless, the new material that was currently utilized in safeguarding the types of works could store whole stories and chronicles. The imperfection in this however was nobody was composing whatever would change the lives of the normal resident. There was an absence of work done about regular daily existences. Not many individuals discussed the manipulative forces of the rich and their endeavors to demolish the lives of the poor Greek resident. Hesoid, a rancher was among one of the not very many who decided to oppose the merciless system. He is known to be probably the best observer to portray the ways of life of the last time of the Greek Dark Ag es. The composing is of the standard human, not courageous warriors. In his work, Hesoid additionally talked about the notion that had been a fundamental piece of Greek life for a considerable length of time. Coins were an essential piece of Greek life (Hooper 1978). Individuals from the network understood the incredible estimation of coins: as a simple trade for products. Proficiency assumed no job in the utilization of these coins since it was a language that could be comprehended by anybody. This utilization of cash was seriously mishandled via landowners and the wealthy who might surrender it as advances and

Back From Vacation

Back From Vacation Im back! Here are the answers to some common questions that have been piling up in my inbox Where the heck have you been?!? April 6-9 was CPW, followed by my first real vacation in over a year. A whole week off! Just got back today 1000+ emails in my inbox good times. :-) What can you tell me about next falls Orientation and Pre-Orientation programs for admitted students? Those are run by the Academic Resource Center (ARC) and not by Admissions, so Im not really an expert on those topics. For the best source of information, please visit web.mit.edu/orientation. Youll find various dates and ARC contact information there. What is the deadline to accept MITs offer of admission? You need to return our form by May 1 (postmark date) if you intend to enroll at MIT. How much is the deposit to secure my place in the class of 2010? Where do I send the deposit? No deposit is required. Just be sure to send in the form by the May 1 deadline. Are you taking anyone from the waitlist this year? We wont know until a few days after May 1, when admitted students let us know if they intend to enroll. If you go to the waitlist, when will decisions be made? If we need to use the waitlist this year, we will begin looking at candidates during the week of May 8. How can I apply to be an admissions blogger next year? Contact us in August and let us know that you wish to be considered for a blogging position. As most of our bloggers will be returning, we will likely only be hiring bloggers from the class of 2010 (and perhaps one additional upperclassman). There is no formal application process, but please note that we only hire experienced bloggers, and therefore your current blog (i.e. your portfolio) is the major factor in whether or not we choose you. The quality and frequency of your content (and how long youve been keeping your blog) will all affect your chances of being chosen. In other words if you dont currently have a blog and you want to be considered, you should probably start a blog ASAP. :-) So what did you do on your vacation, anyway? I built a swingset for my kids! Prior to CPW, I used a wheelbarrow to haul boulders out of the woods to make a 32 x 26 perimeter. On the Monday following CPW, I had 29 tons (yes, 29 tons it sounded absurd to me too) of gravel delivered to the spot, which was dumped in a big pile. It took all of Monday and Tuesday to distribute it evenly throughout the perimeter of boulders (I used only a shovel). Towards the end of Tuesday, it looked like this: And then I spent Weds, Thurs, and Fri building the thing: Not bad for a non-engineer, eh? On Saturday, my MIT co-workers all came over (with their kids) to test out the finished product and celebrate the end of the admissions cycle. It was quite a party, and we had amazing weather. Sunday and Monday felt more like real vacation days, which were much appreciated. And today I am back. Next up: my long-overdue personal CPW recap! Back From Vacation I am back in the office, did you miss me? :-) St. John was awesome, but not as awesome as MIT. Consider the evidence: Sigh. But a week of total relaxation didnt stop me from thinking about MIT constantly. Here I am, preparing to do an info session for the people on the beach: I even made my wife do some recruiting: To make it seem as though it hasnt been almost a month since my last post, Ive created some utterly ridiculous entries for you all to enjoy: The LiveJournal Survey The MySpace Survey The Xanga Survey Look for some actual substance in the near future itll take me a few days to remember what it is that I actually do around here. Ah, the post-vacation mind melt.

The Dehumanization Process in the Narrative of the Life...

The Dehumanization Process in the Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass: An American Slave Throughout American history, minority groups were victims of American governmental policies, and these policies made them vulnerable to barbaric and inhumane treatment at the hands of white Americans. American slavery is a telling example of a government sanctioned institution that victimized and oppressed a race of people by indoctrinating and encouraging enslavement, racism and abuse. This institution is injurious to slaves and slave holders alike because American society, especially in the south, underwent a dehumanization process in order to implement the harsh and inhumane doctrine. In the episodic autobiography Narrative of the†¦show more content†¦Starting from a slave’s birth, this cruel process leads to a continuous cycle of abuse, neglect, and inhumane treatment. To some extent, slave holders succeed because they keep most slaves so concerned with survival that they have no time or energy to consider freedom. This is particularly true for plantation s laves where the conditions of slave life are the most difficult and challenging. However, slave holders fail to realize the damage they inadvertently inflict on themselves by upholding slavery and enforcing these austere laws and attitudes. To begin, Douglass uses imagery to describe the heart wrenching experience of a slave child on a plantation. Without adequate food or clothing, slave children begin the process of dehumanization. Denied blankets or beds, the children slept on the cold and damp floor and Douglass describes with horrid detail his â€Å"feet [being] so cracked with the frost, that the pen which [he is] writing might be laid in the gashes†(1836). This painful description creates empathy for a mistreated child whose only â€Å"crime† results from his birth to a black mother. In the most dehumanizing comparison, Douglass uses animal imagery to reveal the conditions and manner in which the children are fed. Douglass writes: Our food wasShow MoreRelatedThe Life Of Frederick Douglass s The Narrative Of The Life Of Frederick 1306 Words   |  6 PagesSouthern life going on for hundreds of years. Frederick Douglass, a slave who had escaped to the North, after years of abuse through slavery, knew that in order to stop slavery, he had to persuade all the people in the North to vehemently oppose it as much as he did himself. Through the â€Å"Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass†, which he published in 1845, Douglass focuses on the process of dehumanization he and thousands of others went through while being a slave to showcase the American peopleRead MoreAnalysis Of Frederick Douglass Narrative1597 Words   |  7 PagesFrederick Douglass’ Narrative serves as an influential text which provides detailed examples of how slavery allowed a country and a government to justify the brutal dehumanization and oppression of an entire race of people. Using personal experience, Douglass explains h ow the slave institution not only dehumanized himself, but also how the process affected other slaves and the slaveowners as well. Douglass relies on a strong imagery relating back to animals to show this dehumanization process, whichRead MoreDehumanization In Frederick Douglass1795 Words   |  8 Pagesback in Ancient Rome, people celebrated a festival called Saturnalia; in part of the festival, slaves and their masters had their roles reversed. Imagine if the United States (U.S.) adopted this festival—the slaveowners would dread being tortured to death. During the early 19th century, U.S. had its first industrial revolution; as a result, it further increased the usage and value of slaves. Slaves were life-time, unpaid laborers who usually worked and lived in unsafe condition. In the early 19th centuryRead MoreNarrative Of The Life Of Fredrick Douglass, An American Slave916 Words   |  4 Pages Narrative of The Life of Fredrick Douglass, an American Slave In Fredrick Douglass’s a narrative, Narrative of The Life of Fredrick Douglass, an American Slave, he narrates an account of his experiences in the dehumanizing institution of slavery. This American institution was strategically formatted to quench any resemblance of human dignity. Throughout, the narration of his life Fredrick Douglas, meticulously illustrates the methodical process that contributed to the perpetual state of slaveryRead MoreEssay about Dehumanization of Humanity1341 Words   |  6 Pagesto alienate the inalienable, enslave the world’s rulers, and dehumanize humanity. While most slaves experienced the dehumanization that slavery thrust upon them, every slave experienced it in a unique and individual fashion. For Fredrick Douglass the dehumanization occurred in a physical fashion, whereas Harriet Jacobs’s objectification was through mental oppression. Fredrick Douglass always was a slave since the day he was born. While his entrapment began in a somewhat mild way with basic choresRead MoreAmerican Romanticism As Portrayed By Walt Whitman s Song Of Myself979 Words   |  4 PagesJesha C. Lor Callis Modern Civ-LIT 3/21/16 Song of myself (1855) Narrative (1845) American Romanticism as portrayed by Walt Whitman’s â€Å"Song of Myself† and Fredrick Douglass’s Narrative American Romanticism focuses on the imagination, emotions and idealized perspectives of the world. Romanticism is in opposition to the forms and conventions of Neoclassical Literature and is a reaction to the Age of reason which preceded Romanticism. Reason was ruled out in this era in place of imagination, individualityRead MoreFrederick Douglass Reflection Essay2012 Words   |  9 PagesThe narrative of Frederick Douglass is an essential piece in learning of the hardships slaves endured in the pre-civil war era in the United States. Frederick Douglass’s use of diction puts oneself in the place of the slaves and ultimately leads to an intense feeling of disappointment in mankind. One is deeply saddened in learning about how incompetent some slaves were of their position in life. Slaves feared the white population because they didn’t know that there were any whites out in the worldRead MoreDehumanizing Slaves1986 Words   |  8 PagesThe Dehumanization of the Enslave : Frederick Douglass The Narrative of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, Written by Himself Every human being should be given the right to an education, love and the pursuit of happiness. A slave is a human. Therefore, the pilfering of a human’s right through the force of human cruelty is an act of dehumanization for the purpose of ownership and free labor. The act of dehumanizing a slave is a slave master’s desire. A slave master needs control over the mindRead MoreThe Moral Dilemma And Hypocrisy Of Slavery Essay1907 Words   |  8 Pageswhy he does not ignore slavery, as well as why he did not see slaves as property, but as a group of humans who had been abusively denied freedom, and stripped of their humanity for no reason other than avarice personal gain. Slavery was coerced labor that relied heavily on intimidation, brutality, and dehumanization. Regardless that it was once a legal and cultural institution integral to the economic development of the early American economy, slavery was and always will be one of the most horrificRead MoreAnalysis Of The Hunger Games 2484 Words   |  10 Pagesother districts. The concept of dehumanization has applied to various religions, races, and nationalities throughout history. From slavery to the Holocaust to genocides around the world, dehumanization has been used to continue on ways of living and justify certain acts. Pieces of literature attesting to this treatment are great sources of proof that dehumanization has occurred throughout history. In The Hunger Games, the leaders from the Capitol showed dehumanization on a grand scale by assigning

A Few Minerals That Contain Pyroxene

Online Games Is Formative Way of Learning Free Essays

string(127) " how to support early learning and development through the formative assessment process has advanced somewhat in recent years\." Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment A research paper Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment A research paper Elizabeth Dunphy, EdD Commissioned by the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment, NCCA  © NCCA 2008 24 Merrion Square, Dublin 2 www. ncca. ie Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Contents Glossary 5 Introduction 6 Section 1: General background Purpose of the paper Assessment and curriculum The Irish context The practice context The legislative context Ethical Issues Towards a definition of formative assessment Supporting learning and development 8 8 8 9 9 10 11 12 12 Section 2: The nature of early learning Characteristics of early learning The complexity of early learning Key theoretical constructs for assessment Ecological perspectives Socio-cultural perspectives Activity theory Children’s agency Children’s collaboration in learning Intersubjectivity and collaboration Children as co-constructors of knowledge Play as a context for formative assessment Emerging approaches to assessment Performance assessment and authentic assessment Summary 13 13 13 3 14 14 14 15 15 17 17 18 18 19 21 Section 3: What to assess in early learning The essentials of learning Dispositions A range of cognitive abilities Emotional well-being Self-concept and sociability Summary 22 22 22 23 23 24 24 Section 4: How to assess early learning A narrative approach to assessment of learning in early childhood Learning stories: A credit-focused approach A fully-con textualised account of learning Methods for collecting information on children’s learning Observing and empathising Conversations with children Clinical interviews Making sense of children’s learning Sustaining learning and development through documentation Portfolios Summary 25 25 25 26 27 28 29 29 30 30 31 33 3 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Section 5: Assessment and the practitioner Professional knowledge Skills base Ethical considerations Manageability of assessment Tensions 34 34 34 35 35 36 Concluding comments 37 References 38 Table 1: Gardner’s understanding of human development and assessment and Shepard’s guiding principles of assessment 19 4 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Glossary Glossary Agency: Children are active in their own learning. We will write a custom essay sample on Online Games Is Formative Way of Learning or any similar topic only for you Order Now Some ways in which they display their agency is by taking the initiative in learning situations, by observing and becoming involved in ongoing events, or by initiating conversations with others. Authentic assessment: Assessing children on tasks that are part of their ordinary everyday experiences in their early education and care settings. Co-construction: This occurs when children and/or practitioners construct meaning and knowledge about the world together in interaction. Collaborative learning: This is learning that takes place in social contexts and using the resources of the environment. Formative assessment: This is assessment that informs teaching and learning. It is concerned with the shortterm collection and use of evidence for the guidance of learning. Intersubjectivity: This is the mutual understanding achieved by people in communication. Meta-cognition: This refers to what children think about their own learning, thinking and remembering and how the act of thinking about these processes affect the ways in which children then go about intentionally learning, thinking and remembering. It is a process whereby children become aware of their own thought processes. Pedagogy of mutuality: This perspective recognises that both child and adult bring beliefs and ideas to the learning situation and that discussion and interaction are the means by which a shared frame of reference is established. This results in an exchange of understandings between the child and the practitioner. Pedagogical content knowledge: This is a form of professional understanding which brings together content knowledge and knowledge about pedagogy. It is based on an understanding of how best to organise and present ideas and adapt them in response to the diverse interests and abilities of children. Performance assessment: Assessing children’s early learning and development through observing, recording, and evaluating children’s performance or work. Scaffolding: This refers to the practice of providing guidance and support to children as they move from one level of competence to another. It is a metaphor that is used to describe interactional support for children’s efforts. The assistance offered to the child is sensitive to and contingent on the amount of support needed. Schema: These are patterns of early repeatable behaviours which children engage in and which lead them through a process of co-ordination, to make generalisations. Socio-cultural theories: These are a family of theories that have arisen from the work of Vygotsky and which have in common their emphasis on the role that social and cultural factors play in children’s development and learning. Theory of mind: Children gradually acquire the understanding that other people can hold beliefs about the world that differ from what the child him/herself believes or appears to be true. Transformation of participation: From a socio-cultural perspective, children are seen as developing through a process of participating in activities of their communities, and in doing so their participation changes. They become progressively more expert through engagement in cultural practice and through social interactions that guide them in taking on new roles and responsibilities. 5 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Introduction This research paper, Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment responds to the questions – What’s the purpose of formative assessment in early childhood? What should we assess? How should we assess? The paper is one of four research papers commissioned by the NCCA to set out the theory trail behind the Framework for Early Learning1. This paper is being used to develop guidelines on assessment for inclusion in the Framework. While there are a number of different types and functions of assessment this paper focuses on formative assessment as this offers most potential in terms of assessing to support learning in the day-to-day interactions between adults and children in early childhood. Section 1 of the paper, General background explores the meaning of assessment and its relationship with teaching and learning. Though still very much an emerging area, what we know about how to support early learning and development through the formative assessment process has advanced somewhat in recent years. You read "Online Games Is Formative Way of Learning" in category "Essay examples" In many ways the advances in assessment practices in early childhood education and care mirror those in the field of assessment generally. In particular, the articulation of the interrelatedness between teaching, learning and assessment and the complexity of the relationships between these processes and curriculum is of as much importance to those concerned with early learning and development, as it is to those concerned with later stages of development. The term assessment, as applied in early childhood education and care, generally implies the intention to provide a rich picture of the ways in which children act, think and learn. In order to orient the discussion about assessment in early childhood education and care, the initial section of the paper outlines the general context in relation to the assessment of early learning and development. While a number of different reasons for assessing early learning and development can be identified, this paper focuses on using formative assessment to support teaching and learning. Section 2, The nature of early learning begins from the premise that in assessing early learning and development it is critical to acknowledge and take account of the nature of early learning and development. We know that in early childhood learning and development is rapid, episodic and holistic. It is also highly influenced by the extent of support that is available for that learning. The adults around the child, and the extent to which they can and do support early learning and development, are crucial elements in determining the extent of learning. Because of their stage of development, children’s abilities in some areas are not yet mature. Their verbal abilities are still emerging, and so assessment of learning and development is often through observation of, and inference from, the children’s actions and reactions in particular situations. It is also essential to acknowledge and take account of the fact that there are considerable cultural variations in children’s experiences. These will result in differences in the course and content of early learning and development. They may also result in considerable differences in how children learn and in how they display their learning. It is important to focus on the breadth of children’s early learning and development. Section 3, What to assess in early learning focuses on assessing children’s dispositions, well-being, cognitive abilities and self-concept and sociability. Assessment in early childhood is shaped by how children from birth to six years learn and develop. A narrative approach offers great potential for making assessment of early learning visible. Documentation of evidence of early learning and development in various ways, using a variety of media and tools, is important for both reflecting on and communicating about children’s achievements. There appears to be general agreement that assessment of early learning and development should be informal, carried out over time, and in the context of the child’s interactions with materials, objects and other people. It should also be authentic in the sense that it should take place in real-life contexts where it is embedded in tasks that children see as significant, meaningful and worthwhile. Informal assessments, carried out as children engage in experiences they see as relevant and meaningful, are likely to produce the best assessments of early learning and development. These issues are considered in Section 4, How to assess early learning. 1 The Framework for Early Learning was renamed Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework in 2009. 6 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Section 5, Assessment and the practitioner discusses the need for professional development for early childhood practitioners. Good assessment practice requires understanding about how children learn and develop, the process of assessment, and skills to manageably assess in ways that respect children and that are ethically sound. The concluding comments clarify and summarise the key messages across the paper. Key points arising from the discussion are presented in shaded boxes throughout the paper. Some of these points relate to key messages arising from theory and research while others are aspirational. 7 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Section 1: General background This section of the paper explores what is meant by assessment in early childhood and discusses its relationship with teaching and learning. Informed by this, a definition of formative assessment is presented. The section concludes by describing the current practice and legislative context in which assessment takes place in Ireland. Purpose of the paper The purpose of this paper is to review issues related to formative assessment of early learning. The findings of the paper will be used to support the development of the assessment guidelines in the Framework for Early Learning2. The paper responds to questions related to the what, why and how of formative assessment in early childhood. Assessment and curriculum Ways of assessing children’s learning and development cannot be separated from features of the curriculum (for example, the degree of formality or informality that characterises it), and from views of learners and learning which are embodied in that curriculum. Kelly (1992) identifies the interrelating of curriculum and assessment as †¦ a highly complex and sophisticated matter (p. 16). He argues that the interplay of one with the other is crucial in determining the effectiveness of either. The NCCA is developing a curriculum framework for children between the ages of birth and six years. The Framework embraces a particular view of the child, of learning and of how that learning may be celebrated and extended. In the Framework for Early Learning, learning is presented in four broad and complementary themes:  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Well-being  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Identity and Belonging  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Communicating  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Exploring and Thinking. Some of the principles related to how children develop and learn which underpin the Framework include the following:  ¦Ã‚ ¦ holistic learning and development  ¦Ã‚ ¦ active learning  ¦Ã‚ ¦ play and first-hand experiences  ¦Ã‚ ¦ relevant and meaningful experiences  ¦Ã‚ ¦ communication and language  ¦ a well-planned and well-resourced outdoor and indoor learning environment. It will be important to identify an approach to assessment that will help practitioners identify and support children’s learning as it relates to the Framework’s principles and themes. Assessment and teaching are now generally considered to be as much inseparable pr ocesses in early childhood as they are in any other period of life (Shepard, Kagan and Wurtz, 1998; Bowman et al. , 2001). We now know that children learn by building new understandings on those that they already have (Wood, 1998). In order to support children’s learning then, practitioners first collect information about children’s well-being, identity and belonging, communication, and exploration and thinking. What children engage with, think, know, feel or can do are all of importance in the assessment process. Reflection on this information helps the practitioner to establish 2 As noted earlier, the Framework for Early Learning was renamed Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework in 2009. 8 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment ow best to advance children’s learning and development. Once this is established the practitioner is then in a position to plan worthwhile, interesting and challenging learning experiences to further progress learning. Clearly then, assessment in early childhood is not something that can be considered independent of either curriculum or learning. It is critical that the as sessment of early learning recognises the unique nature of development in early childhood. It is also critical that we learn from the experiences of countries with a longer history of appraising assessment practices and processes than we have here in Ireland. Working in the context of the United States, where there has been considerable interest in finding appropriate assessment formats for use by early childhood practitioners, Shepard et al. (1998, pp. 8-9) devised a set of principles to guide practice and policy for the assessment of children’s learning. These represented a synthesis of understandings in respect of the most appropriate approaches to assessment in early childhood and the authors advised that they should apply to any situation in which assessments are used to make decisions about children’s learning:  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Assessments should bring about benefits for children.  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Assessments should be tailored to a specific purpose and should be reliable, valid and fair for that purpose.  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Assessment policies should be designed recognising that reliability and validity of assessments increases with children’s age.  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Assessments should be age-appropriate in both content and the method of data collection.  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Assessments should be linguistically appropriate, recognising that to some extent all assessments are measures of language.  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Parents should be a valued source of assessment information, as well as an audience for assessment results. The Irish context The practice context Assessment in the early years of a child’s life can be viewed from a number of perspectives. David (2003) identifies three perspectives  ¦Ã‚ ¦ the day-to-day informal assessments made by the adults with whom the child comes in contact. In most cases these are early years practitioners who may or may not document such assessments.  ¦Ã‚ ¦ the physical assessments by paediatricians, public health nurses and family doctors. These aim to identify any physical problems that may impede children’s progression and seek to alleviate them as much as possible.  ¦Ã‚ ¦ diagnostic assessments that can have a range of functions, including identifying children with special educational needs, and helping practitioners to support their learning more effectively. No single type of assessment can serve all of the purposes identified in the perspectives outlined above. Each perspective has a role to play, especially in the case of children with special needs where diagnostic assessments are of paramount importance. Babies, toddlers and young children may experience various types of assessments in early childhood. Some may occur frequently, others occasionally. Multi-agency and multi-disciplinary communication is a critical means by which information related to the child’s development and learning can be shared for the benefit of the child. It is imperative that practitioners in early childhood settings have access to any information that is of use in making sure learning opportunities in the setting are appropriate for each individual child. The practice of practitioners building on assessments carried out by other professionals such as therapists can be facilitated by significant levels of inter- and/or multidisciplinary teamwork. 9 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Where children spend some or all of their day in out-of-home settings the practitioners with whom they are in contact engage in ongoing assessment for supporting learning and development. Traditionally, observation is the primary method used in assessing children’s learning and development in the range of early education settings in Ireland. For instance, close observations of children’s play in a range of childcare services in Ireland provide the basis for learning and teaching stories (Brennan, 2004). Many practitioners use checklists to record aspects of their observations. These are often used to record observations in relation to the assessment of children’s skills and understandings, particularly in the area of identifying children with special educational needs and in supporting their learning and development. In relation to their use of assessment practices to support children’s learning in curriculum areas, only about half of infant teachers who participated in Phase 1 of the Primary Curriculum Review (NCCA, 2005) reported that they used observation and about three-quarters reported using documentation. Infant teachers in primary schools also use a range of developmental and diagnostic assessments, for example, in the area of early literacy, to assess specific aspects of children’s development and learning. (See Section 4 for a more extensive discussion on observation as an assessment method. ) Increasingly there is an awareness that children live different childhoods: their social, cultural, linguistic and ecological experiences and opportunities differ and all of this influences assessment. Practitioners who are in daily contact with children are in a good position to familiarise themselves with these diverse aspects of children’s lives and of their possibilities for early learning and development. Consequently, on a day-to-day basis, the practitioner’s own assessments are the ones that have the most potential in terms of planning for children’s learning and of making judgements regarding children’s progress. Using assessment for this purpose is the central focus of this paper. Key point A range of assessments are appropriate in assessing children’s learning. The focus of the assessment depends on its purpose. The central focus of this paper is on formative assessment where practitioners’ own assessments are used to support and plan for children’s learning. The legislative context There is a long history of informal assessment of children’s learning in Ireland. However, for various reasons early childhood practitioners now find it necessary to document learning in ways that were not general practice previously. Both legislative requirements and practitioners’ own desires to better understand early learning and how best to extend it, are to the fore in encouraging the documentation of information related to children’s early learning and development. In relation to young children attending primary schools, The Education Act (Department of Education and Science, 1998) requires principals and teachers to regularly evaluate students and periodically report the results of the evaluation to the students and their parents. The implications of this requirement for teachers and schools include  ¦ developing assessment procedures which provide an accurate account of children’s progress and achievement  ¦Ã‚ ¦ creating and maintaining records of children’s progress and achievement while they are attending the school  ¦Ã‚ ¦ providing parents with assessment reports which contain accurate and clearly accessible information about their children’s progress and achiev ement (NCCA, 2007a, p. 95). The Equal Status Act (The Equality Authority, 2000) has implications for the assessment policy in early education settings. In particular, it requires settings to be aware of the effects of context, culture and language in assessing children’s learning and development. 10 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment The Education for Persons with Special Educational Needs Act (EPSEN) (Department of Health and Children, 2004) requires that where a child has or may have special educational needs an assessment of those needs should be carried out. With children not attending formal schooling this is the responsibility of the relevant health board. Where the child is a student then the Act requires schools to identify when a child is not benefiting from the education programme on offer and to investigate the reasons behind this. The school, or in the case of a child not at school the relevant health board, is mandated to ensure that an individual education plan (IEP) for an appropriate education for the child is drawn up in consultation with the child’s parents. The Act outlines the statutory requirements for educational planning for children with special educational needs (SEN). It requires that a multi-disciplinary assessment be carried out in situations where it is considered that the child may have special educational needs. An IEP must then be prepared for each child identified as having such needs. Discussion and agreement regarding the abilities, skills and talents as well as the nature and degree of the child’s special educational needs, together with an analysis of how these needs affect the child’s learning and development is required. The plan must include these and must also specify goals for learning and development for the child over a period not exceeding ne year. It must also specify the supports that need to be put in place to enable the child to participate in and benefit from education. The Disability Act (Department of Health and Children, 2005) enables provision for the assessment of health and education needs for persons with disabilities, arising from their situation. The Act provides for access for people with disabilitie s to health and education services. In relation to educational needs, Part 2 Section 8 (9) states that where an assessment is applied for it must be carried out by or at the request of an assessment officer who then identifies the need for the provision of an educational service to the child, he or she shall, in case the child is enrolled in a school, refer the matter to the principal of that school†¦in any other case, refer the matter to the council for the purposes of an assessment. The Child Care (Pre-School Services) (No 2) Regulations (Department of Health and Children, 2006) set out the regulations and requirements pertaining to all aspects of the operation of pre-school settings. Regulation 5 explicitly requires that: A person carrying on a pre-school service shall ensure that each child’s learning, development and well-being is facilitated within the daily life of the service through the provision of the appropriate opportunities, experiences, activities, interaction, materials and equipment, having regard to the age and state of development of the child and the child’s cultural context. To fulfil this requirement it is necessary for practitioners to engage in making important judgements about children’s learning and development and how best to extend and enrich it. By implication this involves the practitioner in assessing learning and development. Indeed, the explanatory guide directs practitioners to be pro-active in ensuring that appropriate action is taken to address each child’s individual needs with his/her parents and following consultation, where appropriate, with other relevant services (p. 39). While there are other pieces of legislation which impact on aspects of assessment such as the transfer of assessment information between settings, the focus of this paper is on the actual process of using assessment to support early learning and development. How best to comply with the above demands in ways that are respectful to hildren; capture the complexity of early learning; and are helpful in planning future learning experiences has now become a key issue for consideration for early childhood practitioners. Key point Assessment takes place within a particular legislative framework in Ireland. Ethical Issues The nature of the power relations between babies, toddlers and young children and the practitioners with whom they come into contact needs to be acknowledged in the assessment situation. The power of the adult and the relative dependency of children make it imperative that ethical issues are given serious consideration by practitioners. Some of these issues are discussed later in Section 5. 11 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Towards a definition of formative assessment Bowman, Donovan and Burns (2001) suggest that the term assessment, as applied in early childhood education and care, generally implies the intention to provide a rich picture of the ways in which children act, think and learn. Such a picture focuses on the individual’s learning, is built up over time and provides evidence of learning in a number of different contexts. In relation to its importance, they argue that: Assessment has an important role to play in revealing a child’s prior knowledge, development of concepts and ways of interacting with and understanding the world so that teachers can choose a pedagogical approach and curricular materials that will support the child’s further learning and development. (p. 259) Pelligrini (1998) describes assessment in early childhood as being about the collection of information about children. This is generally understood to encompass a number of other processes besides collecting. For example, Lally nd Hurst (1992) describe how assessment also involves practitioners in documenting, analysing and reflecting on the information collected, and using this to plan and support further learning. This definition is very similar to that used in Assessment in the Primary School Curriculum: Guidelines for Schools (NCCA, 2007a). While similar methods may be useful in both early childhood settings and i n primary school settings, in early childhood assessment particular account needs to be taken of the characteristics of babies, toddlers and young children and to the unique ways in which these children learn. Early childhood assessment focuses specifically on finding out what children are interested in, understand, think, feel, and are able to do. It seeks to document this information in order to understand children’s thinking and learning styles, to chart children’s progress and to support further learning. It is developmental in that it focuses on processes rather than on content or product. Key point Assessment of early learning provides a rich picture of children’s learning by collecting and documenting information. Through reflecting on and using this information, children’s future learning is supported and enhanced. Supporting learning and development Assessment in early childhood has been identified as having a number of functions – ipsative, diagnostic, summative, evaluative and informative (Wood and Attfield, 2005). Assessment in early childhood has enormous potential to support learning and development. A recent large-scale longitudinal study of early learning settings in England confirmed the importance of assessment in meeting children’s needs and in supporting their cognitive progress (Siraj-Blatchford, Sylva, Muttock, Gilden and Bell, 2002). The ultimate purpose of assessment in early childhood is to make learning more interesting, enjoyable and successful for children. Drummond (1993) suggests that assessment must work for children: We can use our assessments to shape and enrich our curriculum, our interactions, our provision as a whole: we can use our assessments as a way of identifying what children will be able to learn next, so that we can support and extend that learning. Assessment is part of our daily practice in striving for quality. (p. 13) Key point Assessment in early childhood promotes the extension and enrichment of children’s early learning and development. The following section looks at the nature of early learning and the implications for assessing early learning. 12 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Section 2: The nature of early learning This section of the paper discusses the characteristics of early learning and identifies some key theoretical constructs that guide the teaching, learning and assessment processes during early childhood. Theoretical considerations have been influential in shaping new and emerging approaches to assessment and the most salient of these are discussed in relation to their implications for the assessment of early learning and development. Characteristics of early learning During the early childhood period children’s learning across the various dimensions of development (for example, physical, motor, linguistic, emotional) is greater than at any other period, but is also highly variable across the dimensions. It also occurs very rapidly, is episodic in nature and is very susceptible to environmental conditions (Shepard et al. , 1998). These factors contribute to making the assessment of early learning and development very challenging. The complexity of early learning We have a great deal of evidence that early learning and development is both extensive and complex (e. g. Drummond, 1993; Bowman et al. , 2001; Carr, 2002). The research paper, Children’s early learning and development (French, 2007) provides information on many facets of early learning and development. Early childhood educators have consistently sought to convey the extent of this complexity and over the years they have provided evidence of exactly how much learning children can demonstrate, provided that it is approached in appropriate ways. For instance, Donaldson (1983) clearly demonstrates how children display different levels of proficiency/learning in different contexts. In her seminal work, Children’s Minds, she reviewed research that illustrated the dramatic effect of the inclusion or omission of a single adjective in questioning children on so-called ‘logical’ tasks. She argues (p. 59) that the young child †¦ first makes sense of situations (and perhaps especially those involving human intentions) and then uses this kind of understanding to help him make sense of what is said to him. Looking not at what children say but at what they do, the work of Athey (1990) and that of Nutbrown (1999) clearly demonstrates how, as children pursue certain schema for considerable periods of time, these can be identified and supported by practitioners. Early learning is seen, for instance in Athey’s work, to have its own recognisable and valid characteristics. Nutbrown (1999) draws out the implication of that work for the assessment of children’s pathways and patterns of development and interest. This work along with that of Drummond (1993) exemplifies vividly how much of children’s learning there is to see if practitioners are open to seeing it by looking beyond what children can tell us and instead observing what they actually can do. Play provides an important vehicle and context for this work. Key point During the early childhood period, children’s learning is highly complex and is made visible through assessing carefully and thoughtfully. Key theoretical constructs for assessment Dahlberg, Moss and Pence (1999) observe that in recent years, especially in Western Europe, there has been a process of rethinking childhood that has led to new constructions of the child. They locate this process in a number of interrelated developments with respect to learning theories; philosophy; psychology; sociology; and a concurrent questioning of previous understandings in these fields. From this post-modern perspective, the young child is seen, from the start of life, as a construction of his or her own world. This is very similar to the perspective adopted by Malaguzzi (1993), the founder of the world-renowned Reggio Emilia pre-schools in Italy. Dahlberg et al. (1999) describe how in Reggio Emilia pre-schools, the young child is understood as a unique, complex individual who is rich in the sense that he or she is equipped from the start to engage fully and actively in their world. A wider discussion of these perspectives follows. 13 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Ecological perspectives Ecological and socio-cultural theories of learning have largely dominated explanations of development and learning in early childhood in recent years. For instance, ecological (Bronfenbrenner 1979) and bioecological (Bronfenbrenner and Morris, 1998) models of human development have been influential in efforts to understand learning and development and associated processes such as assessment. These models emphasise the role in human development of both the environment and of processes. The research paper, Perspectives on the relationship between education and care (Hayes, 2007) in turn highlights both the importance of care and education in facilitating children’s overall development. From this perspective, human development is seen as taking place as a result of progressively more complex reciprocal interactions (p. 996) between the young child and the people, objects and symbols in the environment. To be effective the interactions must occur on a fairly regular basis over extended periods of time (p. 996). These enduring forms of interaction (proximal processes) are seen as key to learning and development and we must study these interactions over time and alongside the observation of behaviour in natural settings. From an ecologicaltheory perspective, Bronfenbrenner (1979) describes how the learner can participate in increasingly more complex learning situations and in doing so take increasingly greater responsibility in the learning situation. The perspective also emphasises the agency or active nature of children in their interactions with adults, objects and symbols. The model can be used to draw attention to the interpersonal and situational aspects of assessment, for example: the importance of the personal characteristics of the child and the adult in the assessment context, the importance of reciprocal interactions between child and adult and the importance of assessing children’s level of engagement with the objects and symbols provided in the immediate environment. Thus the ecological approach emphasises assessment of children engaged in real tasks in natural settings. This perspective sits very well with the socio-cultural perspective that we look at next. Socio-cultural perspectives In the past two decades socio-cultural perspectives, that is perspectives that highlight the social and cultural nature of learning, are increasingly used to explain the ways that learning and development occur in early childhood (Anning, Cullen and Fleer, 2004). Socio-cultural theories of learning suggest that the process of learning is as much a social construction as it is an individual one. Rogoff (1998, p. 91) describes development as transformation of participation. Transformation occurs at a number of levels: for instance, the learner changes at the level of their involvement, in the role they play in the learning situation, in the ability they demonstrate in moving flexibly from one learning context to another, and in the amount of responsibility taken in the situation. Activity theory also concentrates on the social aspects of learning. Activity theory Activi ty theory, which is a development of aspects of Vygotsky’s work (See for example, Engerstrom et al. 1999), is also being highlighted as a theoretical framework that may be useful in explaining the complexity of learning–related issues in early childhood. Fleer, Anning and Cullen (2004) explain how activity theory, in common with Rogoff’s discussion of socio-cultural theory, focuses on the study of the complexity of human behaviour in social groups and in specific contexts. The theory is premised on the notion that the contextual features of a task contribute to †¦ performance on that task (p. 178). Furthermore, children use tools such as language, a particular action or resource to mediate knowledge in interactions with others. But the cultural features of the context in which they use these tools influences the way activities are performed and understood. Key point If socio-cultural theory informs our understanding of how children learn, it also by implication informs our understanding of assessment. 14 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment What all of these perspectives hold in common is their emphasis on the socially constructed nature of learning and of assessment. There are a number of other important constructs that also unite them to greater or lesser degrees. These include children’s agency, the importance of collaboration, and the co-construction of meaning and knowledge. These constructs are particularly helpful when thinking about the quality of the interactions between practitioners and young learners. Quality interactions are increasingly recognised as central to pedagogy (Black and Wiliam 1998a; Siraj-Blatchford et al. , 2002). The next sub-section discusses these ideas in some detail, and in doing so, draws out the implications for assessment practices in early childhood. Children’s agency Bruner (1999a) argues that advances in the study of human development provide us with a profile of the child as an active, intentional being; with knowledge as ‘man-made’ rather than simply there; with ways to negotiate with others in the construction of knowledge. (See French (2007) for more detailed information. ) A crucial aspect of identity and self-esteem is that the child sees him/her self as an agent in control of his/her own actions. Some ways in which children display their agency is by taking the initiative in learning situations, by observing and becoming involved in ongoing events, or by initiating conversations with others. Agency is about taking more control of your own mental activity (Bruner, 1996, p. 87). Bruner argues that the agentive mind is not only active in nature but it seeks out dialogue and discourse with other active minds (p. 93). Bruner (1999a) identifies efforts to recognise children’s perspectives in the processes of learning as highly significant and he uses the term pedagogy of mutuality (p. 3) to describe the pedagogy that arises from such endeavours. It is premised on the belief that children are able to reason; to make sense (both alone and in discourse with others); to reflect and to hold theories about self and about the world. The practitioner, according to Bruner (p. 12) is concerned with understanding what the child thinks and how he/she arrives at what he/she believes. He identifies four key research constructs which have enriched this perspective on teaching and learning (and by implication assessment):  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Intersubjectivity – how the child develops the ability to read other minds  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Theory of mind – the child’s grasp of another’s intentional state  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Meta-cognition – what the child thinks about learning, remembering thinking  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Collaborative learning – how children, through talk and discussion, explain and revise their thinking. These theoretical ideas are important also in the analysis of assessment as it relates to early learning and development. Children’s collaboration in learning is also important and this is considered below. Key point The active role which children themselves play in their interactions with others needs to be recognised and taken into account in any assessment of learning. Children’s collaboration in learning Zone of proximal development Vygotsky’s theory of learning (1978; 1986) has been highly influential in helping to explain the processes of learning in early childhood. In particular, his notion of the zone of proximal development has provided the foundation and potential for some of the most important recent initiatives in the assessment of individual children’s learning (Lunt, 2000). Berk and Winsler (1995) describe Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development (ZPD) as a dynamic zone of sensitivity in which learning and cognitive development occur. Tasks that children cannot do individually but they can do with help from others invoke mental functioning that are currently in the process of developing, rather than those that have already matured (p. 26). It appears that Vygotsky originally introduced the ZPD in the context of arguing against intelligence testing which he felt was seeking to assess something static and did not reflect the dynamic and ever-changing 5 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment nature of human cognition. Adult-child collaboration within the ZPD is critical for effective teaching and learning interactions because it is within such interactions that the practitioner identifies how the child may be assisted in learning and what the child is capable of doing w ith appropriate support. The practitioner also has the opportunity to assess the impact of such support on the child’s progress. This approach to assessment effectively merges the teaching and assessment processes. It is commonly referred to as dynamic assessment. When Feuerstein (1979) first proposed this form of assessment he was envisioning, in essence, a joint problem-solving situation during which the practitioner gauges the nature and extent of assistance required by the child in order to solve the problem. Children’s responsiveness to appropriate instructional interactions is a key factor in dynamic assessment situations and it is now considered to be an important predictor of learning potential (Berk and Winsler, 1995). Lidz (1991) emphasises that: The focus of dynamic assessment is on the assessor’s ability to discover the means of facilitating the learning of the child, not on the child’s demonstration of ability to the assessor (as cited in Berk and Winsler, 1995, p. 139). Dynamic assessment is considered by Berk and Winsler (ibid. ) as especially useful for making visible the learning potential of those children whose early experiences do not include experiences that prepare them for learning in group/institutional settings. (For a comprehensive discussion of dynamic assessment and emerging approaches to such assessment, see Lunt, 2000). The concept of scaffolding is often associated with ZPD and it is this which we turn our attention to next. Key point Practitioner’s interactions with children often incorporate both teaching and assessment. It is critical that the practitioner is capable of engaging certain interactive skills in such situations since these will be necessary to ensure optimal learning and development. Scaffolding Effective scaffolding (Wood, Bruner and Ross, 1976), where the adult guides the child’s learning in the ZPD, is an important feature of the engagement of the child in joint problem solving. Here, the child interacts with the practitioner while the two are jointly trying to reach a goal and this results in the establishment of intersubjectivity (Newson and Newson, 1975). Intersubjectivity refers to the process whereby two participants achieve a shared understanding whilst undertaking a task that they approach from different perspectives. The parties co-construct meanings in activities that involve higher–order thinking (Vygotsky, 1978). Rogoff (1998) emphasises the ongoing mutual process of understanding, which is inherent in joint problemsolving interactions. She also draws attention to the institutional and cultural aspects of joint problemsolving activities. She distinguishes between her socio-cultural approach to studying experts’ support of novices’ learning and other approaches which focus on particular techniques such as scaffolding. Rogoff distinguishes between the concepts of ‘scaffolding’ and of working in the zone of proximal development. She describes scaffolding as a specific technique focusing on what experts provide for novices; it focuses on the tutor’s efforts as they relate contingently to the novice’s successes and failures (p. 699). However, working in the zone of proximal development is, in her view, wider than scaffolding. It focuses on the processes of communication that builds a continually evolving mutual perspective. It is a way of describing an activity in which someone with greater expertise assists someone else †¦ to participate in socio-cultural activities in a way that exceeds what they could do otherwise (p. 699). Mutual contribution is an essential consideration so interactions and communicative and collaborative processes all form part of the picture, rather than just the child’s successes or errors as in scaffolding. Rogoff argues that The concept of scaffolding does not refer to the institutional and cultural context in which it occurs, whereas the concept of zone of proximal development requires attention to processes of communication and the relation of the interaction at hand to institutional, cultural and historic processes. (p. 700) 16 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Key point Supporting children’s learning is an important part of assessment. For the practitioner this is often far more complex than simply applying a technique such as scaffolding. Learners make an equally important contribution. Intersubjectivity and collaboration are important in scaffolding children’s learning and we look at these two concepts below. Intersubjectivity and collaboration Rogoff (1990; 1998) has illustrated how children make an important contribution in collaborating in the process of establishing joint understanding. Children, including infants in the first year of life, can sometimes be observed to be deliberately taking the lead in collaborative activities by seeking information or by directing activities. Rogoff’s analysis, consistent with Vygotsky, suggests that the intersubjectivity as achieved by adults and babies is different from that achieved by adults and children who can use linguistic (verbal and gestural) communication to achieve mutual understandings. This then has implications for the assessment process across the age range birth to six years. Working in the zone of proximal development with a toddler will include the adult engaging in the demonstration of objects, collaborative activity with objects and the focusing of the child’s attention. Rogoff (1998) points out that the child, for example in seeking to help the adult in everyday chores, very often initiates such activity. Older toddlers and young children will often seek to assert their independence in doing a particular task themselves but Rogoff’s analysis of the research suggests that they also will actively seek assistance when they are stuck. Recently a question has arisen about the capacity of early years settings to support the kinds of relationships and shared experiences that enable children to engage in the types of social participation that promote optimum learning (Parker-Rees, 2007). The research indicates that the nature and scope of babies, toddlers and children’s interactions with parents, the playful quality of these interactions and the extent to which relationships can influence reciprocal imitative behaviour (an important process of learning especially in the first year) must all be fully appreciated by practitioners and be seen as desirable conditions for learning in the setting. Key point The concept of collaboration is key when considering assessment from a socio-cultural perspective. In collaborating, the child and the practitioner are involved in each other’s thinking processes through shared efforts. In order to assess certain aspects of learning by babies, toddlers and young children, it is essential for adults to collaborate with the children in order to understand their learning. The co-construction of knowledge is supported by intersubjectivity and collaboration and it is to this that we next draw our attention. Children as co-constructors of knowledge In recent times the term ‘co-construction’ has featured prominently in influential early childhood publications, although it was implicit in the last century in the work of Dewey (1933) who emphasised the ways in which children construct their learning by actively engaging in, and shaping, their experiences and environments. For instance, Jordan (2004) discusses the term scaffolding and compares it with coconstruction. The specific pattern of interaction that characterised early accounts of scaffolding, according to Jordan (ibid. and Rogoff (1998), generally maintained the power and control with the adult. They argue that the term co-construction emphasises the child as a powerful player in his/her own learning. An example of how this process of co-construction works in practice is illustrated in the discussions of the Reggio Emilia approach to early childhood education (Edwards, Gandini and Forman, 1998). Co-construction refers to adults and children making meaning and knowledge together (MacNaughton and Williams, 2004). Co-construction recognises the child’s expertise and in order to understand this, the practitioner needs to interact with the child and become aware of the child’s thoughts and thereby to establish intersubjectivity. 17 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Recent research (Siraj-Blatchford et al. , 2002) also highlighted the process of co-construction and found it to be a key factor in terms of promoting children’s learning. Essentially a co-construction perspective emphasises understanding and meaning on the part of both child and adult, rather than the acquisition of facts by the child. Jordan (2004) concludes that the two concepts, scaffolding and co-construction have different applicability depending on whether the goal of the practitioner is the exploration of thinking or the achievement of pre-specified learning goals. Key point Co-construction of meaning and knowledge is central to teaching, learning and assessment and it occurs when both child and practitioner engage together in achieving mutual understanding. Play as a context for formative assessment As this paper demonstrates, children’s learning is complex and assessment approaches need to take cognisance of this. In early childhood, this complexity is abundantly evident as children engage in play. The importance of play to young children’s learning and development is a key principle for early childhood practitioners (Wood, 2004). Assessing children’s understandings and progress as they play, either alone or with others, is a crucial activity in early year’s settings. In assessing the child’s learning through play the adult can use a range of approaches and methods. Practitioners make assessments by focusing on children’s play interests, their levels of engagement and participation. They make assessments while skilfully engaging with children in play. Skilful engagement includes intervention in play as and when appropriate. Such interventions may serve to initiate or sustain interactions, thereby leading to shared talking and thinking. They may also involve scaffolding children in order to enable them to reach their potential at a particular time. (See the research paper, Play as a context for early learning and development (Kernan, 2007) for detailed information on play. Children’s learning is a complex matter and assessment approaches need to take cognisance of this. The paper now looks at emerging approaches to assessment, all of which take account of play as a vehicle for learning and development. Key point Assessing children’s understandings and progress as they play, either alone or with others, is a crucial activity i n early year’s settings. Emerging approaches to assessment The rationale for using assessment to enrich and extend children’s learning can be located in recent developments in society’s understandings of learning in the early years. For instance, in recent decades there have been very big changes in our understandings of human nature and of learning. Gardner (1999, p. 91) reviews what he describes as several lines of evidence from the cognitive, neural, and developmental sciences which point to a far more capacious view of the human mind and of human learning than that which informed earlier conceptions. He presents a picture of assessment that builds on the newly emerging picture of human development (see Table 1). Gardner’s principles complement the earlier principles presented by Shepard et al. 1998). (See pages 16-17. ) 18 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Table 1: Gardner’s understanding of human development and assessment and Shepard’s guiding principles of assessment Features of human development Features of assessment In understanding human development, there is Assessment should  ¦Ã‚ ¦ be simple , natural and occurring on a reliable schedule evidence for the existence of multiple faculties or ‘intelligences’  ¦Ã‚ ¦ have ecological validity (be done in situations hat are real)  ¦Ã‚ ¦ recognition of vast individual differences;  ¦Ã‚ ¦  ¦Ã‚ ¦ the desirability of assessing learning in context utilise instruments that are intelligence-fair and not dependent on language or logical faculties  ¦Ã‚ ¦ locating competence and skill ‘outside the head of the individual’.  ¦Ã‚ ¦ use multiple measures  ¦Ã‚ ¦ be sensitive to individual differences, developmental levels and forms of expertise  ¦Ã‚ ¦ use materials which are intrinsically interesting and motivating  ¦Ã‚ ¦ yield information to be used for the learner’s benefit.  ¦Ã‚ ¦ a necessity for a developmental perspective  ¦Ã‚ ¦ n emergence of a symbol-system perspective  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Performance and authentic assessment incorporate some of Gardner’s ideas and a discussion of these follows below. Performance assessment and authentic assessment Emerging approaches to assessment take account of developments in theories about learning and about human development. Performance assessment is currently seen as an approach that is particularly appropriate for assessing many aspects of early learning and development (see Bowman et al. , 2001). Meisels (1999) describes performance assessment as assessments that are ounded on the notion that learning and development can only be assessed over time and in interactions with materials, objects and other people. In this approach to assessment, the expectation is that tasks must be practical, realistic and challenging for children (Torrance, 2001). Performance assessment implies observation of children as they undertake a number of routine tasks in early learning settings. According to Meisels (1999, p. 58) these should meet a number of criteria:  ¦Ã‚ ¦ tasks should bring together various skills that children display and de monstrate during the course of interactions  ¦ children should be assisted to perform to the very best of their ability  ¦Ã‚ ¦ tasks should be guided by developmental standards  ¦Ã‚ ¦ tasks should engage children in reflection about their work and in articulating their ideas about their learning. Authentic assessment is a type of performance assessment. It is described as compatible with the prevailing philosophy that emphasises whole child development (Puckett and Black 2000, p. 6). This philosophy explains development across a range of domains (for example social, moral, emotional, language and cognitive). It also recognises the diversity of early learning and the role of environmental factors in shaping that learning. From an authentic assessment perspective, curriculum and assessment are interwoven and emphasise relevant and meaningful experiences. Assessment focuses on what children do, and on how they do it in the context of meaningful tasks. Authentic assessment has a number of identifiable features (Puckett and Black, 2000, p. 7), including the following: 19 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment  ¦Ã‚ ¦ an emphasis on emerging development  ¦ a focus on the young child’s individual strengths and weaknesses  ¦Ã‚ ¦ is based on principles of child growth and development  ¦Ã‚ ¦ emanates from logical, meaningful, relevant and applicable curricula  ¦Ã‚ ¦ is performance based  ¦Ã‚ ¦ recognises different intelligence and learning styles  ¦Ã‚ ¦ is reflective and analytic  ¦Ã‚ ¦ is ongoi ng and occurs in many contexts  ¦Ã‚ ¦ is collaborative with learners, parents and others involved in children’s learning  ¦Ã‚ ¦ is interwoven with teaching. Key point Authentic assessment is compatible with a whole child perspective on learning and development. 20 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Summary Where the purpose of assessment is to promote further learning, assessment becomes a particular type of teaching strategy. (See Marshall and Drummond, 2006). Assessment from a socio-cultural perspective takes account of the key learning processes as determined by socio-cultural theory. In particular, collaboration and the importance in that process of the establishment of mutual understanding (intersubjectivity) need to be emphasised, as do ideas about children’s agency and those related to the co-construction of knowledge and understanding. An understanding of the different processes that contribute to children’s learning, and the types of interactions that promote it are key to understanding how such learning can best be assessed. The recognition of these processes at work is also central in conceptualising assessment approaches that take account of and display the key role of children themselves in the assessment process. Authentic assessment reflects new understandings about learning and about human development, and recognises the holistic, contextualised and dynamic nature of learning in early childhood. Having discussed the interconnection between how children learn and approaches to assessment, the next section looks at what to assess in children’s early learning and development. 21 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Section 3: What to assess in early learning This section of the paper identifies aspects of learning that are of concern in assessing children’s early learning and development. The challenges of assessing a wide range of learning and development in a balanced way are discussed. The essentials of learning Skills and knowledge are important in respect of early learning. However, increasingly there are calls for a wider view of what it is that children are learning in the years from birth to six, and for explicitness about other areas of children’s development that are now recognised as critical for long term success. For instance, Bertram and Pascal (2002) identify social competence, emotional well-being and dispositions to learn as core constituent elements of the effective learner. In relation to each of these areas they identify elements that characterise the effective learner. Indicators related to disposition include independence, creativity, self-motivation and resilience. Those related to emotional literacy include empowerment, connectedness, and positive self-esteem. Those related to social competence inco How to cite Online Games Is Formative Way of Learning, Essay examples

A Review of Exploring the Therapeutic free essay sample

The article explores the concept of incorporating spiritual practices in the clinical practice of counseling. One of the primary elements the article wishes professional counselors to consider is the idea that the values and practices of religious clients deserve the same level of respect and sensitivity as any other ethno-cultural aspect of a clients life (Eck 266). In order to accomplish this, the author identifies the ethical, cultural, and professional practice parameters that all counselors should onsider. Eck points out that many professionals receive training to better assist clients from diverse ethnic backgrounds, but very few incorporate any spiritual framework within sessions with a religious client. The research he analyzed indicates that between fifty and ninety percent of clients seen highly value their spiritual orientation, yet it seems that many counselors prefer to leave spirituality out of the sessions. There are several reasons he believes this may happen, but advocates strongly that proper training with regard to incorporating religious practices in the ounseling session would help counselor competence in the area and provide a better tramework tor assisting religious clients He also recommends proper assessment to determine if spiritual interventions would even benefit the client. We will write a custom essay sample on A Review of Exploring the Therapeutic or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In addition to discussing religious practices with the client, he also suggests the utilization of standardized measures. In addition to taking an assessment of the clients spirituality, the article recommends that professionals be aware of their own level of spirituality and how those beliefs may affect any interaction with a client. There are many ways to incorporate spiritual interventions into practice, but deciding on the best practice depends on the client and on the therapists level of training. On the whole, spiritual intervention is a method that helps the client live the life their religion advocates when the client is unable to do so alone. The article does suggest more research needs to be done to help build better model of therapeutic practices, but indicated many therapists would benefit with simply training more thoroughly with the knowledge we already have. Reflection I was interested in analyzing this particular article because I have always been urious as to why spirituality and modern medicine seem to be mutually exclusive. I especially appreciated how Eck distinguished between the clients level spirituality and that of the therapist. Much like any other ethno-cultural aspect, a clients religion should be incorporated into therapy if it is warranted despite the therapists personal viewpoints. According to APA, religion is recognized under the code of ethics, but many therapists seem to leave the spirituality aspect of their clients lives to religious leaders in their clients lives. Since so many people highly value the spiritual omponent in their lives, it seems that a therapist is doing the client a disservice by not incorporating this aspect into their sessions. Another interesting aspect he presented in the article is the difference between implicit and explicit interventions. A therapist needs to be able to properly assess their own inclinations and beliefs in order to make sure the session is compatible with the needs of the client. This can be especially beneficial to the client when the therapist is trained to determine what avenue to take in assisting the client. There were several works that Eck referred to as being essential resources for the linician seeking to develop ethno-religious competency (Eck 267). The most recent work is listed as Richards and Bergins (2000) Handbook of Psychotherapy and Religious Diversity. In addition to reading this one, I would like to find a copy of Millers (1999) Integrating Spirituality into Treatment. I think these texts will provide more information on current models of treatment that incorporate spirituality into therapy sessions while also serving to enhance my understanding of religious practices that differ from my own. Application The information from this article can be easily applied to virtually any counseling etting. First and foremost I would make sure that I was aware of my own spiritual identity and any prejudices I might harbor about differing practices. Additionally, I would want to make sure I had a basic understanding of the major religions and a competent mentor that I could turn to if the occasion presented itself. I would begin by asking the client open ended questions about their religious views and practices to help determine whether spiritual intervention is appropriate. I would make sure to help the client feel comfortable talking about their religion in addition to all the other spects of their lives. I would also make doubly sure to refrain from talking to them about my preterences so there are no unintended teelings ot religious coercion. My next step would be to assess the level of the clients spirituality with standardized measures along with any other assessment appropriate for their concerns. If a spiritual intervention is warranted, I would find the appropriate spiritual discipline to address the clients condition. Eck has identified thirty-nine different spiritual disciplines from various authors that address common themes in therapy. Ultimately hat means identifying the religious ideal and discovering what is preventing the client from reaching that goal. In doing so, I can help the client move past these barriers and help them build a life more congruent with their faith. I would also encourage the client to be open with their religious leader about their struggles and progress as that can have a very positive affect for highly religious individuals.

John Lennons Imagine Essays - John Lennon, , Term Papers

John Lennon's Imagine John Lennon's Imagine is one of the most inspirational songs of all time. It always made people think about the words of his song. Some questions rise, such as how would the world be if there was no violence, religion, or countries bound by boundaries? The song came at a time when there was alot of protest. Lennon was always one to think of peace and harmony and the basics of life. When Lennon writes,Imagine all the people living life in peace(11- 12), he means that he wonders what the world would be like, if everyone were equal. There was no rich or poor, if there was no hunger,everyone just sharing what they had and no jealousy. Every country would have the same equalities and there would be no third world countries. That's what the song Imagine describes, an a utopian state. The message was communicated through music by an artist who was one of the greatest songwriters of all time. John Lennon and his wife, Yoko Ono, were twoof the biggest advocates of world peace. The song questions if we could imagine what it would be like to live like that. Imagine, is a song that will always make you stop and wonder what it would be like to live in a perfect society. Bibliography Imagine. John Lennon. 16 October 2000. Music Essays

The History Of Baseball Cards Essays - Trading Cards, Baseball Cards

The History Of Baseball Cards Essays - Trading Cards, Baseball Cards The History of Baseball Cards Baseball cards have a very broad history. In the beginning, god made man. Then, man produced........ the baseball card. From 1887 to the present, billions of baseball cards have been produced. Some cards are valued at ten cents, while others, are valued at over one hundred thousand dollars. Since 1887, Baseball cards have been a major part of many people's lives. The Beginning of the baseball card collecting era would lead cards to a path of greatness and immortality. The first baseball cards were made of a cloth like material. Many of these cards were "home made" (SCD)*. No one but the creator of these cards, (there all dead) knows for sure what exactly was used to produce these early cards. This time period started on 1887 and continued on until 1901. The 1887 baseball cards were part of a unique set. Not only did this set contain baseball cards, but it also contained boxing. golf, and horse racing cards. These cards are very high in value because of their rarity and because they are some of the early baseball cards. The common card is worth around $800. All of these cards are common, considering that there were no star athletes back then. There were not many cards sizes during this time period. The only size that I could find was one and a half inches by two inches. There were many company's that manufactured cards during this time period. They were: Mayo Tobacco Works, Buchner, Kimball's, Old Judge, Allen & Ginter, and Goodwin (SCD). These cards are rare, but are not very difficult to obtain if you're willing to pay top dollar. What many collectors call "the golden years of baseball", took place from 1902 until 1935. One reason that collectors call this time period that is because cards took many different changes during this era. Cards were starting to be packaged with Chewing Tobacco, crackerjacks, and Chewing gum. The value of cards during this time period depends on many different factors. A large percent of these cards have misprints (flaws). Because of these misprints, a card may have a higher value than the exact same card because of a misprint. The reason there were so many misprints was because the card industry was just starting to experiment with the printing process (SCD). The most expensive baseball card of all time was produced during this era. That card was the Honus Wagner T-206 produced in 1909. The reason that this card is so expensive is because only 4 of these cards were ever produced. Honus Wagner didn't want kids buying tobacco for the Baseball cards. One of the Wagners sold at an auction recently for 451,500 to Wayne Gretzky (SCD). There were three main sizes of baseball cards during this time period. One of the sizes was the "tobacco" size cards. These cards were one and a half inches by two inches. The second card size was a rectangular sheet of three cards. These were about two inches by five and one fourth inches. The third and final size was a square about two inches by two inches. Cards were packaged with chewing tobacco, cracker jacks, chewing gum, and cigarettes (SCD). Many company's produced cards during this era. Some of the major manufactures were : Piedmont, Soverign, Ramly, Hassan, Mecca and Turkey Red. The T-2.. series is very common at card shows. With the exception of the Honus Wagner, most of these cards can be acquired for a reasonable price. From 1936 until 1960, not much happened in the card collecting era. Three major changes occurred during this time period. The cards themselves changed to a size that would carry them to present time. Also, two ground breaking companies would arrive and last until the 21st century. The value of the 30's and 40's cards is around forty dollars for a semi-star (BKM)*. The value of the 50's cards is a little higher at forty five dollars for the semi- star. Mickey Mantle's rookie is included in the 1952 Bowman set. It is valued at $9,000 . Also, another Mantle , his '52 Topps is worth $35,000 (BKM, SCD, TUFF*). The 60's common cards are worth between one dollar and five dollars. There were two main card sizes from 1936 to 1960.

Macro Economics Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Macro Economics - Assignment Example Jim Flaherty, the Finance Minister, asserted that the balanced budget was not negotiable. The IMF’s report also pointed out some of the probable storm clouds on the horizon including the cooling housing market, historic debt-to-income levels, along with increased risks in the United States and Europe that could affect the Canadian exports and interest rates. As cited by Jackson, the Harper government requires a sound fiscal thinking, and not balanced laws2. The report by the Washington-based agency further outlined that Canada requires a strategic plan for long-term growth including a fiscal policy that focuses on the reduction of government debt. The fiscal policy needs to have a positive impact on the Canadian economy. Direct and indirect taxation, budget balancing, and government spending can be utilized to counter-cyclically smooth out volatility of real national output. The graph below shows that anything that influences a change in government spending, consumption, or investments will shift the Investment Saving curve3. Therefore, an increase in national spending as well as increasing the demand for goods and services in similar rates pushes the IS curve to the right. The aggregate demand together with the gross domestic product of the nation is increased4. On the other hand, interest rates need to increase in order to equilibrate the liquidity preferences and loanable funds. This will cushion Canada from economic down turns. Jackson, Andrew. 28 January 2014. Canada needs sound fiscal thinking, not balanced budget laws. Accessed 22 October 2014 . The Canadian Press. 3 February 2014. IMF: Canadian economy to grow, slightly, by 2.2 per cent in 2014. Accessed 22

Concern Related to Embryonic Stem Cell Technology Research Paper

Concern Related to Embryonic Stem Cell Technology - Research Paper Example Introduction Embryonic stem cell technology is developing rapidly at present because of the huge developments in genetic engineering. Many of the genetic diseases and other chronic diseases can be treated effectively with the help of embryonic cells. Starr et al (2010) pointed out that â€Å"Stem cells are self-renewing in nature† (Starr et al., p.449). In other words, patients who are suffering from cell damages or malfunctioning of cells can be treated with the help of stem cells. Stem cells are usually classified into two broad categories; embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells. Even though adult stem cell related technologies are developing fewer controversies, embryonic stem cell related technologies are generating huge controversies. As the name indicates, embryonic stem cells are collected from embryos. It forms soon after fertilization whereas adult stem cells form during adulthood. It is evident that embryos which undergo stem cell collection may not survive. The l ogic of saving the life of a person by destroying the life of an embryo is often questioned by religious leaders and sociologists. In their opinion, there is no point in saving a life at the expense of another life. On the other hand supporters of embryonic stem cell technology are of the view that human life is more important than an embryo’s life. ... Embryonic stem cells have the ability to replicate indefinitely and it can help the formation of all adult cell types. It should be noted that adult stem cells do not possess such abilities. Under such circumstances, embryonic stem cells are extremely useful in the treatment of many of the genetic diseases and other chronic diseases which cause cell destruction. Starr et al pointed out that â€Å"embryonic stem cells could be used to provide new nerve cells† (Starr et al., p.449). Many of the adult population are currently suffering from nerve problems such as Parkinson disease, Alzheimer’s, epilepsy, dimenisia Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, or ALS etc. All these diseases are extremely difficult to treat with ordinary medicines. No medicines are capable of regenerating cells. Stem cells are useful and perhaps the only option in the treatment of above diseases. For example, Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis or ALS is a disease which affects nerve cells in brain and spinal co rd. ALS prevents people from free moving because of the inability of muscles in receiving instructions from brain as a result of the damaged nerve cells. â€Å"Even though genetic defects were reported in some cases, the exact reasons for ALS are still unknown in majority of the cases†(Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis). Neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimers' is caused by problems in cortical neurons whereas in dementia, Lewy bodies, or frontotemporal lobar degeneration is causing the disease. Parkinson disease is caused by dopaminergic neurons whereas upper and lower motor neurons cause amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) (Inou, p.2560). Choia et al (2010) mentioned that â€Å"As a rare and fatal

Uncle Toms Cabin And The Imagery English Literature Essay

Uncle Toms Cabin And The Imagery English Literature Essay In many ways the north may have been the starting point for many of the hard working religious, patient Individuals. Some might say that they may have bees somewhat like Harriet Beecher Stowe themselves however, this was a potential threat. The north and the south shared many economic and legal issues at that time because even though the north did not have slavery they still felt the issues that came with slavery. Stow made it very clear in her writing just how horrible slavery was. She shows us the legal consequences that slavery had on the north, and how many individuals lend a helping hand to help free slaves with the risk of being jailed. Stow tries to give the readers an accurate picture of the slavery in the south. Many of Stowes readers were mainly white women, so she used the opportunity to play on their feelings on the poor treatment of the slaves. Her main focus was to get the white women of the north to read it, because she hoped that they might be able to help her with the abolishment of slavery. She painted a very strong and real picture of the individuals that were suffering from the prejudice of slavery. The writing in Uncle Toms Cabin is so vivid that it feels like the reader is experiencing the same hardship as the slaves did in the south. The sentimental writing drew women of its time to read Stowes novels. Her main focus was to give the reader an unsettled emotion of guilt, to make individuals see how many lives and families were destroyed through slavery. In the early nineteenth-century human cruelty was a constant issue for the slaves, which makes this a vital part of American history. Harriet Beecher Stowe uses two but distinct ethical systems in Uncle Toms Cabin: One is the value of Christianity and two she uses parental values. When one reads the the beginning of the book, how Uncle Tom and Eliza find out they are getting sold. Both of these characters have different points of views. Uncle Tom puts all of his faith in God and says whatever happens will happen , were as Eliza who will face similar heart ship decides to get away. Both of these decisions are portrayed to fit each character in the book. Uncle Toms describes his sufferings in plain words though the bible. However, some models are not as clear because it over lapses the Christian fews. However, in Eliza case she decides to run away to save her children. However, the book describes how horrific the circumstances were and Uncle Tom was sold many times over. He said: If I must be sold, or all the people on the place, and everything go to rack, why, let me be sold. I spose I can bar it as well as any on em (Stowe, 1852). Looking at all the slave masters in the novel one can clearly see, that Uncle Toms master differed from all the other masters and his outlook on how slaves should be treated. It not only teaches Christian values but also family values. Stowe is mainly focusing her writing on the facts that slavery is wrong, cruel and evil. She not only writes an outstanding book but she also makes some excellent points at the same time. She quoted: I did not write it. God wrote it. I merely did his dictation (Stowe, Uncle Tom`s Cabin, 1879). In Stowes mind all of her writing came from God and not her, she cared deeply about God and his will. In her writing she is consistently telling the readers that slavery is wrong and cruel. Individuals are being beaten, starved to death and ripped away from their familys. Many individuals like Uncle Tome are being sold over and over again, and with each selling a new owner comes along. Slaves never knew what fate had in store for them, because every slave owner had their own way of controlling the slaves. However, Stowes novel shows that there were also good slave owners such as St. Clare. Uncle Tom was sold to a couple named St Clare and from reading Stowes novel they treated Uncle Tom very ki ndly. In conclusion Stowes writing is very effective, she points out that slavery is very wrong, in order to help the abolitionist cause. At the same time her novel has an enormous impact not only on the readers back then but also today.